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The Ultimate Guide to Visiting Zambia in 2025: Safari Adventures, Victoria Falls & Local Secrets

Discover the best way to visit Zambia in 2025 with our comprehensive insider's guide, covering Victoria Falls, safari experiences, practical travel tips, and authentic local experiences from someone who's explored this amazing African country multiple times.

Introduction: Why Zambia Should Be Your Next African Adventure

I’ll never forget the first time I watched the sun rise over the Zambezi River. It was 2017, my third day in Zambia, and I’d woken up at 4:30 AM, still jetlagged and disoriented in my tent at a riverside camp. Rather than fight it, I grabbed my camera and hiked to a nearby ridge. As the horizon transformed from charcoal to amber, a family of elephants emerged from the morning mist to drink at the water’s edge. In that moment – sleep-deprived, mosquito-bitten, and absolutely spellbound – I knew Zambia would become more than just another stamp in my passport.

After five visits spanning eight years, I’ve developed an almost evangelical enthusiasm for this underrated gem of Southern Africa. While neighboring countries might draw bigger crowds, Zambia offers something increasingly rare: authentic wilderness experiences without the tour buses and selfie sticks. From the thundering magnificence of Victoria Falls to the untamed wilderness of its 20 national parks, Zambia delivers the Africa of your imagination – with a fraction of the tourists found elsewhere.

Whether you’re a first-time safari-goer or a seasoned African traveler seeking new adventures, this guide will share everything I’ve learned about experiencing the best of Zambia in 2025, including practical advice, money-saving strategies, and the kind of local insights that can transform a good trip into an unforgettable journey.

Understanding Zambia: Essential Background

Zambia remains one of Africa’s most peaceful and politically stable countries, though it’s often overshadowed by its more tourism-focused neighbors. Roughly the size of Texas, this landlocked nation is home to around 19 million people from 72 distinct ethnic groups, each with their own traditions and languages – though English serves as the official language, making travel relatively straightforward for English speakers.

The country takes its name from the mighty Zambezi River, which forms its southern border with Zimbabwe and creates the spectacular Victoria Falls (known locally as Mosi-oa-Tunya – “The Smoke That Thunders”). While its economy relies heavily on copper mining, tourism has been growing steadily, particularly in key areas like Livingstone (near Victoria Falls) and the major national parks.

When to Visit Zambia

Timing your visit is crucial for the best experience. Zambia has three distinct seasons:

  • Dry Season (May to October): The traditional safari high season, offering excellent wildlife viewing as animals congregate around water sources. The weather is mild to hot during the day and cool at night. This is the best time for game drives and walking safaris, though September and October can be extremely hot (up to 40°C/104°F).
  • Wet Season (November to April): The “Emerald Season” brings spectacular landscapes, newborn animals, and incredible birdwatching opportunities. While some roads become impassable and certain camps close, those that remain open offer significant discounts (sometimes 30-50% off high season rates). This is the time to visit if you’re a photographer or bird enthusiast on a budget.
  • Shoulder Season (April-May and November): My personal favorite times to visit. You’ll find fewer tourists, moderate prices, and often fantastic wildlife viewing as the seasons transition.

Insider Tip: If you’re targeting Victoria Falls specifically, know that water levels vary dramatically throughout the year. Visit between February and May for the most spectacular volume of water, but be prepared to get soaked! If you want clear photographs and the ability to swim in the Devil’s Pool, October to January offers lower water levels.

Zambia’s 2025 Calendar: Events Worth Planning Around

Consider timing your 2025 visit around these cultural events:

  • Kuomboka Ceremony (March/April, depending on rain levels): The Lozi people’s spectacular royal water festival where the king moves from his flooded palace to higher ground. Colorful boats, traditional music, and ritual performances make this Zambia’s most famous cultural event.
  • Livingstone International Cultural Arts Festival (Late May): A vibrant celebration of Zambian arts, music, and culture in the tourist hub of Livingstone.
  • Lusaka Agricultural Show (July/August): While primarily agricultural, this huge fair offers fascinating insights into rural Zambian life.
  • Zambia International Trade Fair (June/July): Held in Ndola, this showcases Zambian business and culture.

Getting to Zambia and Getting Around

International Flights to Zambia in 2025

Lusaka’s Kenneth Kaunda International Airport (LUN) serves as Zambia’s main international gateway. As of 2025, the following airlines offer regular service:

  • Emirates (via Dubai)
  • Ethiopian Airlines (via Addis Ababa)
  • Kenya Airways (via Nairobi)
  • South African Airways (via Johannesburg)
  • RwandAir (via Kigali)
  • Turkish Airlines (via Istanbul)

For those planning to visit Victoria Falls, Livingstone Airport (LVI) offers an excellent alternative with connections through Johannesburg, Nairobi, and Addis Ababa.

Money-Saving Flight Tip: I’ve consistently found better deals by booking flights to Johannesburg and then connecting to Lusaka or Livingstone on a separate ticket with FlySafair or Airlink. This can save 20-30% compared to booking everything on a single ticket, especially if you’re flexible enough to stay overnight in Johannesburg.

Visa Requirements for 2025

Zambia has significantly streamlined its visa process in recent years. As of 2025, visitors from most Western countries can either:

  1. Apply for an e-visa in advance through the official immigration website (recommended for peace of mind)
  2. Purchase a visa on arrival at LUN, LVI or any other port of entry

Single-entry tourist visas cost $50 USD for most nationalities and are valid for 90 days. If you’re also visiting Zimbabwe (highly recommended for viewing Victoria Falls from both sides), consider the KAZA Univisa ($50 USD) which covers both countries for 30 days and allows multiple entries.

Getting Around Zambia

Zambia is vast, with limited infrastructure outside major cities. Your transportation options include:

Domestic Flights

For time-efficient travel between major destinations, domestic flights are essential. Proflight Zambia operates reliable services connecting Lusaka with Livingstone, Mfuwe (for South Luangwa), Ndola, and Solwezi. During high season, book these at least 1-2 months in advance as they fill quickly.

Route Frequency (High Season) Average Duration Approx. Cost (USD)
Lusaka – Livingstone 2-3 daily 1 hour $180-250
Lusaka – Mfuwe 2 daily 1 hour 10 min $220-300
Lusaka – Lower Zambezi Daily (seasonal) 35 min $190-240
Livingstone – Mfuwe 2-3 weekly 2 hours $350-450

Self-Drive

While I’m normally an enthusiastic self-driver in Africa, I approach this differently in Zambia. The combination of poor road conditions, sparse services, and complex navigation makes self-driving challenging for first-time visitors. That said, if you have experience driving in Africa, a 4×4 rental from Lusaka can provide incredible freedom to explore.

I made the mistake of renting a standard sedan on my first visit – don’t repeat my error! After getting stuck twice on the road to Lower Zambezi, I had to hire local help to pull me out. Now I exclusively rent high-clearance 4×4 vehicles from either Avis or Bushlore (who offer fully-equipped camping vehicles).

Insider Tip: Always carry extra water, food, and a full spare tire when driving between destinations. Cell service is unpredictable, and breakdown assistance may be hours away. I keep a satellite communication device when traveling remote routes.

Private Transfers and Tours

For most visitors, pre-arranged transfers are the most practical option. Most lodges and safari operators can arrange road transfers between nearby destinations. For a comprehensive itinerary, consider booking through a reputable tour operator like Royal Zambian Safaris or Robin Pope Safaris.

Must-Visit Destinations in Zambia for 2025

Victoria Falls and Livingstone

No visit to Zambia is complete without experiencing the breathtaking power of Victoria Falls (Mosi-oa-Tunya). Standing before this UNESCO World Heritage Site as over 500 million liters of water crash down every minute at peak flow is simply humbling. On my last visit, I felt the spray from nearly a kilometer away before I even glimpsed the falls!

The nearby town of Livingstone offers excellent infrastructure for travelers, with accommodations ranging from backpacker hostels to ultra-luxury lodges. I recommend spending at least 3 days in this area to experience both the falls and the range of nearby activities.

Top Victoria Falls Experiences:

  • Walking Tour of the Falls: The network of paths along the Zambian side offers spectacular viewpoints. Entrance fee is $20 USD for foreigners. Bring a waterproof case for your phone/camera and rent a poncho at the entrance during high water season (February-June).
  • Microlight Flight: For the ultimate perspective, take a microlight flight over the falls with Batoka Sky. At around $185 USD for 15 minutes, it’s splurgy but unforgettable.
  • Devil’s Pool (August-January): During lower water levels, brave visitors can swim to the very edge of the falls in this natural infinity pool. Book through Tongabezi Lodge or Livingstone’s Adventure.
  • White Water Rafting: The Zambezi offers world-class rapids just below the falls. Full-day trips with companies like Safpar cost around $160 USD.
  • Sunset Cruise: More relaxing than adrenaline-filled, these cruises offer wildlife spotting and spectacular sunsets. The African Queen is my favorite at $75 USD including drinks and snacks.

Money-saving tip: Most activities can be booked last-minute in Livingstone, often at 10-15% below the online prices. My strategy is to arrive with a loose plan, then book activities locally after checking the weather forecast. The notable exception is Devil’s Pool, which should be booked weeks in advance.

South Luangwa National Park

South Luangwa is the crown jewel of Zambia’s safari destinations and the birthplace of the walking safari. Despite its world-class wildlife viewing, it sees a fraction of the visitors found in more famous parks like the Serengeti or Kruger. I’ve visited four times, and each safari has delivered incredible encounters – from leopards draped over branches to massive elephant herds crossing the Luangwa River at sunset.

The park is especially renowned for its leopard sightings and extraordinary guiding standards. Zambian guides undergo some of Africa’s most rigorous training, and their knowledge transforms a good safari into an incredible educational experience.

South Luangwa Safari Options:

  • Budget Safari: Stay in Mfuwe village at places like Croc Valley Camp ($70-130/night) or Track & Trail River Camp ($80-140/night) and take daily game drives into the park.
  • Mid-range Safari: Camps like Flatdogs or Wildlife Camp offer excellent value with rates around $350-450 per person per night including activities and meals.
  • Luxury Safari: For the full wilderness immersion, consider bush camps like those operated by Time + Tide or Norman Carr Safaris. Expect to pay $700-1200 per person per night, all-inclusive.
  • Walking Safari: For the most authentic experience, book a multi-day walking safari between bush camps. Companies like Robin Pope Safaris offer excellent mobile walking experiences.

Money-saving insider tip: Many of the luxury camps offer significant “long-stay” discounts. For example, booking 7 nights across Time + Tide’s properties can reduce nightly rates by 30%. Also, traveling during the shoulder season (November or April/May) can cut prices by 25-40% while still offering excellent wildlife viewing.

My first safari in South Luangwa was in late April – technically the tail end of the rainy season. I booked last-minute and paid less than half the high-season rate. Though we occasionally needed ponchos during afternoon showers, the lush landscapes and clear air made for spectacular photography, and we still saw the Big Five during our four-day stay.

Lower Zambezi National Park

The Lower Zambezi offers what might be Africa’s most beautiful safari setting. The park sits opposite Zimbabwe’s Mana Pools, with the mighty Zambezi River flowing between them. What makes this destination unique is the diversity of activities – beyond traditional game drives, you can explore by boat, canoe, or on foot.

Despite its beauty, Lower Zambezi receives even fewer visitors than South Luangwa, creating an incredibly exclusive safari experience. During three days at Chongwe River Camp in 2022, we encountered other vehicles during only two game drives.

Lower Zambezi Highlights:

  • Canoeing Safaris: Drift silently past elephants drinking at the water’s edge and hippos submerged in the cool water. Half-day or multi-day options are available.
  • Catch-and-Release Tiger Fishing: The Zambezi is famous for its fighting tiger fish – an experience that combines sport fishing with stunning scenery.
  • Night Drives: The park permits night game drives, offering opportunities to spot elusive nocturnal species like genets, civets, and even the occasional leopard hunt.

Most lodges here operate at the higher end of the market, with all-inclusive rates starting around $650 per person per night in high season. Top options include Chiawa Camp, Chongwe River Camp, and Time + Tide Chongwe.

Kafue National Park

Kafue is Zambia’s largest national park and one of Africa’s biggest, yet it remains largely undiscovered by international tourists. Its remote location and vast size have preserved its wilderness character, making it perfect for safari veterans seeking new experiences.

The Busanga Plains in the north of the park offer spectacular lion sightings, while the diverse habitats throughout Kafue support unusual species rarely seen elsewhere, including cheetah, wild dog, and roan antelope.

My favorite lodges here include Kaingu Safari Lodge, Mukambi Safari Lodge, and for luxury, Shumba Camp.

Bangweulu Wetlands

For those seeking truly off-the-beaten-path experiences, the Bangweulu Wetlands offer a completely different side of Zambia. This massive wetland ecosystem is famous for its endemic black lechwe antelope and the prehistoric-looking shoebill stork.

Visiting requires some effort, but witnessing thousands of lechwe splashing through shallow waters or catching a glimpse of the elusive shoebill makes the journey worthwhile. Shoebill Island Camp provides the best access to this unique ecosystem.

Cultural Experiences and Local Interactions

Zambia’s greatest resource is its warm, welcoming people. While wildlife may be the initial draw, many visitors find their interactions with Zambians to be equally memorable.

Ethical Community Tourism

Look for opportunities that genuinely benefit local communities rather than exploiting them for tourist dollars:

  • Kawaza Village Tourism Project: This community-run initiative near South Luangwa offers homestays, cultural demonstrations, and school visits. What makes it special is that it was initiated by the community itself, not an outside organization.
  • Mukuni Village near Livingstone: Though more commercial than Kawaza, Mukuni offers insights into Leya tribal traditions. Visit the craft market even if you skip the organized tour.
  • Tujatane Trust School visits: Near Livingstone, this remarkable school welcomes visitors to see their educational programs in action. Advance arrangements are required.

Learning Local Phrases

While English is widely spoken, learning a few phrases in local languages shows respect and usually earns warm smiles:

  • “Muli bwanji?” (Nyanja/Chichewa): How are you?
  • “Ndili bwino” (Nyanja/Chichewa): I am fine
  • “Zikomo” (Nyanja/Chichewa): Thank you
  • “Mwatandala” (Bemba): Hello/Good morning

On my third trip, I challenged myself to learn basic greetings in Nyanja. My clumsy pronunciation at a rural market near Mfuwe initially caused confusion, then delighted laughter, ultimately breaking the ice and leading to wonderful conversations with local farmers about their crops and families.

Zambian Cuisine

Don’t miss the opportunity to try traditional Zambian food:

  • Nshima: The staple food made from maize meal, similar to thick polenta. Eaten with hands and used to scoop up accompanying relishes.
  • Ifisashi: A delicious groundnut (peanut) stew with vegetables.
  • Village chicken: Free-range chicken slow-cooked to tenderness.
  • Kapenta: Tiny dried fish eaten as a snack or in stews.
  • Mosi beer: The national lager, refreshing after a hot day.

In Lusaka, I recommend Marlin Restaurant for authentic Zambian cuisine with modern touches. In Livingstone, try Olga’s for local flavors in a casual setting.

Practical Information and Tips

Money and Costs in 2025

The Zambian Kwacha (ZMW) is the local currency, though USD is accepted at most tourist establishments. As of early 2025, exchange rates hover around 24-25 ZMW to 1 USD. ATMs are readily available in cities and tourist areas, though service fees can be high.

Safari lodges typically charge in USD, with most luxury options running $500-1000 per person per night (all-inclusive). Mid-range accommodations range from $150-400, while budget options start around $50 per night. Meal costs outside of packages range from $3-5 for local restaurants to $15-25 at tourist establishments.

Money-saving tip: Zambia operates on a tiered pricing system, with foreigners paying more than locals for many attractions. This is standard practice and helps make sites affordable for Zambians. I’ve found that car rental, accommodation, and activity prices are often negotiable, especially during low season. Don’t be afraid to politely ask, “Is this your best rate?” – I’ve received discounts of 10-20% simply by asking.

Health and Safety

Zambia is generally a safe destination, but taking sensible precautions is essential:

Health Precautions:

  • Malaria prevention: Zambia is a malaria zone. Consult your doctor about prophylaxis before travel, and use insect repellent with DEET, especially in the evening.
  • Vaccinations: Yellow fever vaccination is not required for entry unless you’re arriving from a yellow fever endemic country. However, hepatitis A, typhoid, and routine vaccinations should be up to date.
  • Water: Stick to bottled or purified water. I travel with a LifeStraw bottle as a backup and to reduce plastic waste.

Safety Tips:

  • Exercise the same caution you would in any unfamiliar place, particularly in Lusaka and urban areas.
  • Avoid displaying expensive jewelry or electronics, especially when walking in cities.
  • Use registered taxis or ride-sharing services rather than walking at night in urban areas.
  • Keep copies of important documents like your passport, and store the originals securely.

Personal mistake to avoid: On my second trip, I severely underestimated the potency of the Zambian sun while on a walking safari. Even with sunscreen, I suffered considerable sunburn after just three hours. Now I always pack a wide-brimmed hat, high-SPF sunscreen, and a light long-sleeved shirt even when visiting during cooler months.

Connectivity and Communication

Zambia’s communication infrastructure has improved dramatically in recent years, though coverage remains spotty in remote areas:

  • SIM Cards: Airtel and MTN offer the best coverage. SIM cards cost about 10 ZMW ($0.40 USD) and require registration with your passport. Data packages are inexpensive – I typically pay about $10 for 5GB.
  • Wi-Fi: Available in most hotels and lodges, though speed and reliability vary significantly. Urban hotels typically offer decent connections, while safari camps may provide limited or scheduled access.
  • Power: Zambia uses the UK-style three-pin socket (Type G). Power outages occur occasionally, but most tourist facilities have backup generators.

Packing Essentials for Zambia

Beyond standard travel items, consider these Zambia-specific essentials:

  • Neutral-colored clothing (beige, khaki, olive) for safaris
  • Lightweight, long-sleeved shirts and pants (for sun and insect protection)
  • A good pair of binoculars
  • High-SPF sunscreen and insect repellent
  • Wide-brimmed hat and sunglasses
  • Headlamp or flashlight (power outages happen)
  • Basic first-aid kit including anti-diarrheal medication
  • Battery pack for charging devices during long safari days

Packing mistake to avoid: On my first safari, I brought a massive telephoto lens that was heavy, conspicuous, and ultimately unnecessary. Most safari vehicles get remarkably close to wildlife, making a 70-300mm zoom lens sufficient for most photographers. Save the weight and instead bring a wide-angle lens to capture landscape shots.

Sustainable and Responsible Travel in Zambia

Zambia has made impressive strides in conservation and sustainable tourism, but the country’s ecosystems remain vulnerable. As visitors, we have a responsibility to minimize our impact:

Choosing Ethical Operators

Research companies before booking to ensure they have strong conservation credentials and fair employment practices. Look for:

  • Memberships in organizations like the Travelers Against Plastic or Tusk Trust
  • Clear statements about their environmental policies
  • Community involvement and benefit programs
  • Proper waste management practices

Operators like Robin Pope Safaris, Chiawa Camp, and Time + Tide are leaders in sustainable practices.

Reducing Your Impact

  • Minimize plastic use: Bring a reusable water bottle and refuse plastic bags.
  • Respect wildlife viewing guidelines: Maintain appropriate distances and never pressure guides to get closer to animals.
  • Conserve water: Zambia frequently experiences water shortages. Keep showers brief, and reuse towels when possible.
  • Support conservation initiatives: Consider adding a visit to organizations like the Conservation Lower Zambezi or South Luangwa Conservation Society to learn about their anti-poaching and community work.

Money-saving sustainability tip: Many eco-lodges offer discounted rates if you participate in their conservation activities. At Flatdogs Camp in South Luangwa, I received a 15% discount on my stay by joining their bi-weekly community tree-planting initiative, which turned out to be one of the trip’s highlights.

Conclusion: Your 5-Step Action Plan for Visiting Zambia

After five visits to Zambia spanning nearly a decade, I’ve fallen deeply in love with this remarkable country. Despite growing tourism, it remains one of Africa’s best-kept secrets – offering authentic wilderness experiences, incredible wildlife viewing, and meaningful cultural connections without the crowds found elsewhere.

If you’re considering Zambia for your next adventure, here’s my recommended 5-step action plan to make it happen:

  1. Decide on your timing: Choose between the dry season (May-October) for optimal wildlife viewing, the green season (November-April) for better value and photography, or the shoulder seasons for a balance of both.
  2. Identify your must-visit destinations: For first-time visitors, I recommend combining Victoria Falls with either South Luangwa or Lower Zambezi. If you have 10+ days, consider adding a second safari destination.
  3. Set your budget realistically: Safari experiences in Zambia range from $200 to $1000+ per person per day. Determine what you can afford, then look for value within that range rather than cutting essential experiences.
  4. Book flights and key accommodations: International flights should be secured 4-6 months in advance for the best rates. Popular safari camps can fill a year ahead for peak season, but last-minute deals are often available during shoulder and green seasons.
  5. Prepare for your adventure: Get necessary vaccinations, break in your walking shoes, learn a few phrases in local languages, and read up on Zambian history and wildlife to enrich your experience.

Whether you’re watching a leopard stalk through tall grass in South Luangwa, feeling the spray of Victoria Falls on your face, or sharing stories around a campfire with Zambian guides, this country has a way of etching itself into your heart. Though modernization is happening quickly, Zambia still offers what many safari destinations have lost – a genuine sense of wilderness and discovery.

As the Zambians say when bidding farewell: “Tizaonana” – we will see each other again. And once you’ve experienced Zambia, I suspect you’ll be planning your return before your first trip even ends.

Frequently Asked Questions About Visiting Zambia

Is Zambia safe for tourists?

Yes, Zambia is generally considered one of Africa’s safer destinations. Violent crime against tourists is rare, especially in safari areas. Exercise normal precautions in cities like Lusaka, avoid displaying valuables, and use registered taxis at night. The biggest safety concerns are typically health-related (like malaria) rather than crime-related.

Do I need a visa to visit Zambia?

Most visitors require a visa to enter Zambia. Many nationalities (including US, UK, EU, Australian, and Canadian citizens) can purchase single-entry tourist visas on arrival for $50 USD or apply online through the e-visa portal. If you’re also visiting Zimbabwe, consider the KAZA Univisa ($50 USD), which covers both countries.

When is the best time to see Victoria Falls?

Victoria Falls has dramatically different faces throughout the year. February to May offers the highest water volume, creating spectacular views but so much spray that visibility can be limited. October to January brings lower water levels, allowing you to see the rock formations and swim in Devil’s Pool, but the falls might be reduced to several separate streams. June to September offers a good balance of water volume and visibility.

How much does a safari in Zambia cost?

Safari costs vary widely based on accommodation level, season, and activities:

  • Budget safari: $150-250 per person per day (staying outside parks and doing day trips)
  • Mid-range safari: $350-600 per person per day (all-inclusive at moderately priced lodges)
  • Luxury safari: $700-1200+ per person per day (top-tier lodges with premium guiding)

Green season rates (November-April) can be 30-50% lower than peak season prices.

Can I combine Zambia with other African countries?

Absolutely! Zambia pairs particularly well with:

  • Zimbabwe: Easy to combine via Victoria Falls, adding destinations like Hwange or Mana Pools
  • Botswana: Accessible via Kazungula border or flights from Livingstone to Kasane
  • Malawi: Combine South Luangwa with Lake Malawi for a safari and beach holiday
  • South Africa: With numerous flight connections to Johannesburg, easy to add Cape Town or Kruger

Is Zambia suitable for families with children?

Many Zambian lodges welcome families, though some have minimum age requirements (typically 7-12 years for game drives, 12-16 for walking safaris). Recommended family-friendly options include Flatdogs Camp and Track & Trail in South Luangwa, and The River Club or David Livingstone Safari Lodge near Victoria Falls. The malaria risk means extra precautions are necessary for young children.

What wildlife can I expect to see in Zambia?

Zambia offers excellent wildlife viewing, including the “Big Five” (though rhinos are rare outside of Mosi-oa-Tunya National Park). South Luangwa is famous for leopards and large elephant herds. Lower Zambezi excels for elephant, buffalo, and water-based wildlife viewing. Kafue offers cheetah and antelope species not commonly seen elsewhere. Bird diversity is exceptional throughout the country, with over 750 recorded species.

Do I need special vaccinations for Zambia?

Yellow fever vaccination is not required unless you’re arriving from a yellow fever endemic country. However, the CDC and WHO recommend being up-to-date on routine vaccinations plus hepatitis A, typhoid, and possibly rabies and cholera. Malaria prophylaxis is strongly recommended, as Zambia is a high-risk malaria zone.

How reliable is internet access in Zambia?

Internet availability has improved significantly in recent years but varies by location. Major cities and tourist hubs offer reliable connections. Most safari lodges provide Wi-Fi in common areas, though speeds can be slow. Remote bush camps may offer limited or no connectivity. Mobile data through local SIM cards provides good coverage in populated areas but can be spotty in national parks.

References and Further Reading