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Is Afghanistan Safe for Travelers in 2025? A Realistic Assessment

Considering a trip to Afghanistan in 2025? Learn about current safety conditions, regional security variations, cultural requirements, and practical travel advice from someone with extensive experience navigating this complex but rewarding destination.

Introduction: The Question Everyone Asks

When I tell people I’ve visited Afghanistan multiple times since 2018, including three trips in the last year alone, their reaction is almost always the same – wide eyes, followed by “But is it safe?” It’s a fair question. My first trip there came after months of anxiety and second-guessing. I remember sitting in Dubai’s airport for my connecting flight to Kabul, seriously contemplating turning around and going home. That nervousness seems almost funny now, given how much I’ve come to appreciate this misunderstood country.

Afghanistan’s safety situation is nuanced and constantly evolving. This guide draws from my personal experiences, conversations with locals, expatriates, security professionals, and the latest developments as of early 2025. While mainstream media often portrays the entire country as a war zone, the reality on the ground varies dramatically by region, season, and political developments.

Whether Afghanistan is “safe” depends greatly on your definition of safety, your travel experience, your preparation, and most importantly – where exactly you plan to visit. Let’s explore this question thoroughly so you can make an informed decision about traveling to this complicated but fascinating destination.

Current Security Situation (2025 Update)

Afghanistan’s political landscape transformed dramatically after August 2021 when the Taliban returned to power. As of 2025, the security situation has somewhat stabilized compared to the chaos of the previous decades, but significant concerns remain.

General Safety Overview

First, let’s address the elephant in the room: Afghanistan remains classified as a “Level 4: Do Not Travel” country by most Western governments, including the US State Department and the UK Foreign Office. These advisories cite risks including:

  • Terrorism and targeted attacks
  • Kidnapping
  • Civil unrest
  • Armed conflict in certain regions
  • Crime
  • Limited consular assistance (most foreign embassies remain closed)

However, the on-the-ground reality in 2025 is more complex. During my visit in March 2025, I observed that certain areas, particularly Kabul, Herat, Bamyan, and Mazar-i-Sharif, have experienced some improvement in day-to-day security. The end of active conflict between government forces and the Taliban has eliminated some forms of violence, but new security concerns have emerged.

Reality Check: Afghanistan isn’t currently experiencing large-scale warfare as portrayed in many Western films and news reports, but it remains a high-risk destination requiring significant preparation and ideally professional guidance.

Regional Safety Variations

Safety varies dramatically by region. This table provides a general assessment based on my observations and local contacts as of early 2025:

Region/City Relative Safety Level Notes
Kabul Moderate Risk Main urban areas have stabilized; outskirts remain problematic. Random security incidents still occur.
Bamyan Lower Risk Historically stable Hazara region with less extremist activity. Winter access difficult.
Herat Moderate Risk Urban center relatively stable; proximity to Iranian border brings unique dynamics.
Mazar-i-Sharif Moderate Risk Urban areas relatively stable; security deteriorates outside city limits.
Panjshir Valley High Risk Ongoing resistance activities against Taliban; not recommended for travel.
Eastern Provinces Extreme Risk Active ISIS-K presence; border regions particularly dangerous.
Southern Provinces High Risk Kandahar city has some stability, but surrounding areas remain volatile.

Types of Security Threats in 2025

The nature of security threats has evolved since the Taliban takeover. Based on my recent experiences and discussions with security professionals in Kabul:

Terrorism and Targeted Attacks

ISIS-K (Islamic State Khorasan Province) remains active, particularly in eastern Afghanistan and occasionally in major cities. Their attacks often target Taliban officials, religious minorities, and occasionally places where foreigners gather. During my stay in Kabul in January 2025, an explosion occurred about 3 kilometers from my guesthouse, targeting a Taliban checkpoint. This reality underscores that even “safer” areas can experience violence.

Crime and Kidnapping

Economic hardship has led to increased street crime in urban areas. While the Taliban has implemented harsh punishments for theft, foreign visitors may still be targeted for opportunistic crime or kidnapping for ransom. I’ve noticed increased security checkpoints in Kabul, which has somewhat deterred street crime in central areas.

One evening in Kabul, my local friend insisted we return to our guesthouse before dark, explaining that criminal groups sometimes operate at night despite Taliban patrols. “They have brought some security, but poverty makes people desperate,” he told me quietly.

Civil Unrest

Protests against Taliban policies, particularly regarding women’s rights and economic issues, occasionally occur but are quickly suppressed. Being caught in such gatherings could be dangerous for foreigners.

Who Should (and Shouldn’t) Consider Traveling to Afghanistan

Based on my experiences guiding friends and colleagues through Afghanistan, I’ve developed some clear guidelines on who might reasonably consider a trip here in 2025.

May Consider With Proper Preparation

  • Experienced conflict zone journalists with proper security arrangements and press credentials
  • Aid workers employed by established organizations with security protocols
  • Academic researchers with institutional backing and clear permissions
  • Very experienced travelers with extensive previous experience in high-risk regions, proper insurance, and local connections
  • Business travelers with official invitations and security arrangements
  • Visitors with Afghan family connections who can provide genuine local protection and guidance

Should Not Consider Afghanistan in 2025

  • Solo travelers without previous conflict zone experience
  • Budget backpackers looking to “wing it”
  • Inexperienced travelers or those seeking adventure tourism
  • LGBTQ+ travelers (homosexuality remains illegal with severe penalties)
  • Women traveling alone (extremely challenging due to current restrictions)
  • Those with medical conditions requiring reliable healthcare access
  • Anyone unable to afford proper insurance and security measures

Personal Insight: On my second trip, I met a young European backpacker who had decided to “explore Afghanistan on a budget.” Within three days, he was frantically trying to leave after realizing the complexity of the security situation and cultural restrictions. The $50 he’d saved by not hiring a guide ended up costing him over $1,000 in emergency transport arrangements.

Special Considerations for Women Travelers

The situation for women travelers in Afghanistan deserves special attention. As a male traveler, I’ve observed the challenges faced by female colleagues and have consulted with women who have recently visited to provide this section.

Since the Taliban takeover, restrictions on women have intensified. Female travelers face significant challenges:

  • Requirement to wear full hijab (at minimum) or burqa in most areas
  • Mandatory male guardian (mahram) for movements in many regions
  • Limited access to certain public spaces
  • Restrictions on interacting with male Afghans
  • Difficulty accessing gender-segregated services

A female journalist colleague who visited in late 2024 told me: “Every aspect of daily life required additional planning. Even using a restroom became a logistical challenge. I couldn’t have managed without my local female fixer who understood how to navigate these restrictions.”

While foreign women sometimes receive slightly different treatment than local women, the general expectations of modest dress and behavior apply strictly. My observation is that women travelers face a substantially higher level of restriction and potential risk than male travelers.

Essential Preparation for Traveling to Afghanistan

If you’ve assessed the risks and still wish to visit Afghanistan, thorough preparation is absolutely essential. Here’s my comprehensive preparation checklist based on multiple visits:

Documentation and Legal Requirements

  1. Visa Process: The visa situation changes frequently. As of early 2025, visas can be obtained through Afghan diplomatic missions in neighboring countries or through special tour operators with government connections. The process typically requires a letter of invitation from a registered Afghan entity.
  2. Insurance: Standard travel insurance will not cover Afghanistan. You need specialized high-risk zone insurance from providers like Battleface or World Nomads (special policy required). Expect to pay $15-30 per day for adequate coverage.
  3. Emergency Evacuation Plan: Medical evacuation from Afghanistan can cost $50,000+ without proper insurance.

Security Arrangements

During my last visit, I spent 950 AFN (about $13 USD) per day for a trusted local guide who also served as security advisor. This is an absolute minimum – many travelers opt for more comprehensive security.

  • Local Guide/Fixer: Essential for navigation, translation, and security advice. Budget 3500-7000 AFN ($50-100) daily for a qualified person.
  • Secure Accommodation: Stay only in guesthouses or hotels with proper security measures (guards, walls, security protocols). Expect to pay 7000-14000 AFN ($100-200) per night in Kabul for security-focused accommodation.
  • Communications: Purchase an Afghan SIM card (approximately 350 AFN/$5), but also have backup communications like a satellite phone or device with international roaming.
  • Information Monitoring: Subscribe to security alert services like International SOS or Crisis Response.

Health Preparations

Afghanistan’s healthcare system remains severely limited. My medical kit for Afghanistan is far more comprehensive than for typical travel destinations.

  • Vaccinations: Ensure all routine vaccinations are current, plus hepatitis A/B, typhoid, polio, and rabies
  • Personal Medical Kit: Include antibiotics, antimalarials, altitude sickness medication (for mountain regions), pain relievers, and any personal medications
  • Water Purification: Tablets or filtration systems are essential
  • First Aid Training: Basic first aid knowledge is invaluable given limited medical facilities

During my trip to Bamyan Province, I developed a severe case of food poisoning. The nearest medical facility was rudimentary at best, and I was grateful for the comprehensive medical kit I’d brought. The antibiotics I packed likely prevented a much more serious situation.

Financial Preparations

Afghanistan operates largely as a cash economy with minimal banking infrastructure. On my last trip, I carried crisp, new USD bills in various denominations:

  • Cash on Hand: Bring new, undamaged US dollars (older or damaged notes are often rejected)
  • Currency Exchange: Exchange money only through recommended changers (my guide knew trustworthy vendors in the Shahzada Market in Kabul)
  • Daily Budget: Allow for 10500-21000 AFN ($150-300) daily for a relatively secure experience
  • Emergency Funds: Have access to emergency funds ($1000+ in cash, securely stored)

Insider Money-Saving Tip #1: Instead of hiring a dedicated security detail, connect with reputable local NGOs who may allow you to join their movements for a contribution to fuel costs. This saved me roughly $150/day while maintaining security standards. Contact established NGOs before arrival to explore this option.

Cultural Preparation

Understanding and respecting Afghan culture isn’t just about etiquette—it directly impacts your safety. I spent months studying Dari phrases and cultural norms before my first trip, and it paid dividends in both safety and meaningful connections.

  • Dress Code: Conservative dress is essential. Men should wear long pants and shirts covering the shoulders. Women should wear loose clothing covering arms, legs, and hair.
  • Language Basics: Learn key phrases in Dari or Pashto. Even basic greetings like “Salaam alaikum” (peace be upon you) and “Tashakor” (thank you) are appreciated.
  • Religious Sensitivity: Respect prayer times, Ramadan observances, and religious sites. Never photograph people praying without explicit permission.
  • Gender Interactions: Male visitors should not initiate physical contact with Afghan women. Female visitors should be cautious about interactions with Afghan men.

I learned this lesson the hard way when I accidentally entered a mosque without removing my shoes during my first visit. While people were forgiving once they realized I was foreign, it created unnecessary tension that could have been easily avoided with proper research.

Safest Regions to Visit in Afghanistan (If You Must Go)

If you’ve decided to visit Afghanistan despite the risks, focusing on relatively safer regions can significantly reduce your exposure to danger. Based on my recent travels and local information, these areas have been comparatively stable as of early 2025:

Bamyan Province

Located in central Afghanistan, Bamyan has historically been one of the country’s safer regions. The predominantly Hazara population tends to be more moderate and welcoming to foreigners. The province is known for:

  • The empty Buddha niches (the statues were destroyed in 2001)
  • Band-e-Amir National Park with its stunning blue lakes
  • Ancient city of Shahr-e Zohak (Red City)

During my visit in September 2024, I found Bamyan city relatively calm, though Taliban presence has increased since my previous visit. Local tourism infrastructure remains basic but functional.

Insider Money-Saving Tip #2: In Bamyan, stay with local families through community-based tourism initiatives rather than in the few overpriced guesthouses. For about 2100 AFN ($30) per night including meals, you’ll get authentic experiences while directly supporting local economies. The Noorband Qala Guesthouse coordinates these stays and costs significantly less than security-focused accommodations in Kabul.

Herat City

The urban center of Herat, with its Persian influences and historical significance, has generally maintained better security than many other Afghan cities. Key attractions include:

  • Friday Mosque (Masjid Jami)
  • Citadel of Herat
  • Minarets of Herat

My visit in late 2024 found the city center relatively stable, though movement after dark was restricted by my local contacts for safety reasons. The proximity to the Iranian border has created a distinctive cultural environment different from other Afghan cities.

Portions of Kabul

While Kabul experiences periodic security incidents, certain neighborhoods remain relatively safer for foreign visitors with proper precautions. Areas like Wazir Akbar Khan and Shahr-e Naw have better security but are not immune to incidents.

In Kabul, I always stay in guesthouses with multiple security layers and only move around with trusted local guides. The city offers:

  • National Museum of Afghanistan (partially reopened)
  • Gardens of Babur (Shah’s Gardens)
  • Kabul Market for handcrafts and carpets

During my January 2025 visit, I noticed increased Taliban checkpoints throughout the city, which has reduced some types of crime but creates its own tensions and challenges for foreigners.

Panjshir Valley (With Major Caveats)

Historically one of Afghanistan’s safer areas, Panjshir’s status has changed significantly since 2021. While its stunning landscapes and the mausoleum of Ahmad Shah Massoud remain draws, Panjshir has seen resistance activity against Taliban rule. Access is strictly controlled, and security can change rapidly.

I visited briefly in October 2024 with special permissions and found the atmosphere tense, with numerous checkpoints. I cannot currently recommend Panjshir for typical travelers, though some specialized tours still operate with specific arrangements.

Common Mistakes to Avoid in Afghanistan

During my multiple trips to Afghanistan, I’ve made my share of mistakes and seen others make potentially dangerous errors. Learn from these real experiences:

Mistake #1: Ignoring Local Advice About Movement Patterns

During my second visit, I insisted on visiting a certain historical site in eastern Kabul despite my guide’s hesitation. He reluctantly agreed, but requested we change vehicles and take an unusual route. I later learned there had been security incidents in the area, and my visible foreign presence following predictable tourist patterns could have created unnecessary risk. Now I always defer to local expertise about where and when to move.

How to avoid this mistake:

  • Explicitly ask your guide about security concerns for each planned location
  • Accept changes to your itinerary without pushing back
  • Never insist on visiting a location against local advice
  • Vary your daily routines and movement patterns

Mistake #2: Inappropriate Photography

Early in my first trip, I casually photographed a street scene that happened to include a government building in the background. Within minutes, I was surrounded by stern officials questioning my intentions. My guide had to spend nearly an hour resolving the situation. Photography in Afghanistan comes with significant restrictions that aren’t immediately obvious to visitors.

How to avoid this mistake:

  • Never photograph government buildings, military checkpoints, or officials
  • Ask permission before photographing people (especially women and children)
  • Be aware that even innocuous photos can be misinterpreted
  • Consider using a smaller camera rather than professional equipment which attracts attention
  • Let your guide review photos periodically to identify potential issues

Mistake #3: Relying on Digital Payments and Cards

Despite knowing Afghanistan’s cash-based economy, I once found myself short on physical currency after miscalculating expenses. While attempting to pay for safe transport back to my guesthouse, I discovered my emergency credit card was useless – the power was out, communications networks were down, and I had to borrow money from my guide. This created unnecessary complications and potential risk.

How to avoid this mistake:

  • Carry more cash than you think you’ll need (in both USD and Afghanis)
  • Distribute it in different secure locations on your person
  • Maintain a separate emergency fund
  • Calculate daily expenses generously, including unexpected security costs

Insider Money-Saving Tip #3: Afghanistan operates on a negotiation-based economy, but haggling as a foreigner requires finesse. Instead of negotiating prices directly (which can create tension), ask your trusted guide to purchase items on your behalf without revealing the foreign connection. When I implemented this approach, prices for the same goods dropped by 30-40% compared to my visible presence during transactions.

Mistake #4: Discussing Politics and Religion Carelessly

During a conversation with newfound Afghan acquaintances on my first trip, I casually expressed political opinions that unknowingly touched on sensitive tribal and historical conflicts. The mood in the room shifted instantly, and my guide later explained I had inadvertently taken sides in complex local issues I didn’t fully understand. Political discussions that seem academic to foreigners can touch on deeply personal conflicts for Afghans.

How to avoid this mistake:

  • Listen far more than you speak
  • Avoid expressing opinions on Afghanistan’s governance or history
  • Never criticize religious practices or beliefs
  • If asked directly about politics, offer diplomatic, neutral responses
  • Follow your guide’s lead in conversations

Getting Around Safely in Afghanistan

Transportation in Afghanistan presents unique challenges and security considerations. Based on my experiences traversing the country from 2018 through early 2025, here are practical insights:

Air Travel Within Afghanistan

Domestic flights operate between major cities, primarily through Kam Air and Ariana Afghan Airlines. In my experience:

  • Reliability: Schedules change frequently; flight cancellations are common due to weather, technical issues, or security concerns
  • Routes: As of early 2025, regular flights connect Kabul with Herat, Mazar-i-Sharif, and occasionally Kandahar
  • Booking: Reserve through local travel agencies rather than websites, which may not reflect current realities
  • Cost: One-way domestic flights typically range from 4900-8400 AFN ($70-120)
  • Airport Security: Allow significant extra time for security procedures

During my last visit, my flight from Herat to Kabul was canceled without notice, forcing me to arrange ground transportation on short notice—a significantly higher-risk alternative that required additional security measures.

Road Travel

Road journeys involve substantial risk assessment and should never be undertaken without security guidance. My observations:

Intercity Travel

  • Security Checkpoints: Numerous Taliban checkpoints exist on all major roads; interactions require appropriate cultural understanding
  • Vehicle Type: Low-profile, locally common vehicles are preferable to obvious foreign or luxury vehicles
  • Timing: Daylight travel only; many roads become significantly more dangerous after dark
  • Planning: Routes require advance security assessment and may need to change based on current conditions

Urban Transportation

  • Private Drivers: Arrange trusted drivers through your guesthouse or guide rather than hailing unknown taxis
  • Cost: In Kabul, expect to pay 350-700 AFN ($5-10) for short trips within the city with a vetted driver
  • Public Transport: Generally not recommended for foreigners due to security concerns and potential targeting

When traveling from Kabul to Bamyan in 2024, my guide insisted we use two vehicles—one as a lead car to assess checkpoints and potential issues ahead. This added 3500 AFN ($50) to the journey but provided significantly enhanced security awareness.

Sustainable Tip: Instead of hiring multiple vehicles for your group, coordinate with other trusted travelers or NGO workers to share transportation. This not only reduces costs (saving me approximately 2100 AFN/$30 per day during my last visit) but also minimizes environmental impact in a country with significant pollution challenges.

Border Crossings

Land border crossings operate with varying degrees of reliability:

  • Pakistan Borders: Torkham and Spin Boldak crossings experience frequent closures and changing requirements
  • Uzbekistan Border: The Hairatan crossing near Mazar-i-Sharif operates somewhat more predictably
  • Iran Border: The Islam Qala crossing near Herat functions with relative consistency

During my March 2025 visit, I spoke with travelers who had recently entered via the Uzbekistan border. They reported a 4-hour process with multiple document checks but noted the procedure, while tedious, was relatively straightforward with proper visas.

Communication and Connectivity

Staying connected in Afghanistan requires planning and backup options. The communications infrastructure has improved slightly in urban areas since my first visit but remains unreliable.

Mobile Networks and SIM Cards

Afghan Wireless, Roshan, and MTN provide the main cellular services:

  • Availability: SIM cards can be purchased in urban areas with registration (passport required)
  • Coverage: Reasonable in major cities, limited to non-existent in rural areas
  • Internet: 3G/4G available in major cities but frequently slow or interrupted
  • Cost: SIM cards cost approximately 100-200 AFN ($1.50-3), with data packages around 500 AFN ($7) for 5GB

I typically use Afghan Wireless, which I’ve found offers the most reliable service in Kabul and provincial capitals. During my last visit, I maintained active SIMs from two different providers for redundancy.

Internet Access

  • Guesthouses/Hotels: Many security-focused accommodations offer WiFi, though quality varies dramatically
  • Power Issues: Regular power outages affect connectivity; facilities with generators provide more reliable access
  • VPN Requirement: Some websites and services are restricted; a reliable VPN installed before arrival is essential

Emergency Communications

Never rely solely on local communications infrastructure:

  • Satellite Phones: Legal but may attract unwanted attention; use discreetly
  • Satellite Messengers: Devices like Garmin InReach provide emergency communication and location tracking
  • Communication Plan: Establish regular check-in protocols with contacts outside Afghanistan

During a power outage in Mazar-i-Sharif last year, cell networks remained down for nearly 18 hours. My satellite messenger provided crucial reassurance to family and access to emergency assistance if needed.

Conclusion: Making Your Decision About Traveling to Afghanistan

After multiple visits to Afghanistan spanning several years through early 2025, I’ve come to a nuanced conclusion about travel safety in this complex country. Afghanistan is not categorically “safe” by conventional standards—but neither is it universally dangerous as often portrayed.

The question of whether to visit Afghanistan isn’t one I can answer for you. What I can offer is a framework for making this significant decision based on personal experience and current realities.

5-Step Action Plan if You Decide to Visit

  1. Deep Research (3-6 months before): Beyond this guide, connect with recent travelers, join specialized forums like the Lonely Planet Thorn Tree Central Asia Forum, and follow Afghanistan-focused security analysts on social media.
  2. Secure Professional Support (2-3 months before): Arrange a trusted local guide/fixer with security experience and vetted accommodation. Reliable operators include Untamed Borders and SAKA Safaris.
  3. Comprehensive Preparation (1-2 months before): Obtain specialist insurance, prepare communication devices, arrange funds, and create detailed contingency plans shared with trusted contacts outside Afghanistan.
  4. Cultural and Language Preparation (ongoing): Learn basic Dari phrases, understand cultural sensitivities, and study appropriate behaviors for different regions and situations.
  5. Daily Security Protocol (during visit): Implement a strict daily routine of location sharing, security assessments before movements, regular check-ins with outside contacts, and constant situation awareness.

Throughout my travels in Afghanistan, I’ve experienced moments of extraordinary hospitality, witnessed landscapes of breathtaking beauty, and gained insights impossible to obtain from news reports. These rewards come with significant risks that each traveler must evaluate personally.

The Afghanistan I’ve come to know is a land of striking contrasts—strategic thoroughfare and isolated mountain communities, ancient traditions and modern conflicts, extreme danger and profound kindness. Whether these contrasts are worth experiencing firsthand is ultimately your decision.

If you do choose to visit, do so with thorough preparation, appropriate expectations, and deep respect for the land and its people. Afghanistan demands nothing less.

Frequently Asked Questions

Is any part of Afghanistan truly safe for tourists in 2025?

No part of Afghanistan can be classified as “safe” by international tourism standards in 2025. Some regions, particularly Bamyan and portions of Herat, experience fewer security incidents, but conditions can change rapidly. All travel in Afghanistan carries significant risk requiring specialized preparation.

How has the security situation changed since the Taliban takeover?

Since August 2021, the nature of security risks has transformed. Large-scale military operations have ceased, but targeted attacks by groups like ISIS-K continue. Crime rates fluctuate with economic conditions, and new restrictions on movement and behavior (particularly for women) create different challenges. Some highways have become more predictably passable, while new checkpoints introduce different concerns.

Can I travel independently in Afghanistan?

Independent travel without local support is extremely inadvisable. Most successful visits involve either organized tours with security provisions or arrangements with trusted local guides and fixers. Solo travel without security knowledge or local connections presents unacceptable risks.

What happens if I need emergency medical care in Afghanistan?

Medical facilities in Afghanistan are severely limited. In Kabul, a few private clinics provide basic care, but serious conditions require evacuation to neighboring countries or beyond. Specialized travel insurance with evacuation coverage is essential. Always carry a comprehensive medical kit and know your evacuation options before arrival.

How much should I budget for a trip to Afghanistan?

A security-focused visit to Afghanistan requires significant resources. Budget travelers should reconsider their plans. Expect minimum costs of $150-300 per day including security-focused accommodation, reliable transportation, guide services, and contingency funds. Specialized insurance adds $15-30 daily. A 10-day visit typically requires $2,500-5,000 excluding international flights.

Are there any tour companies still operating in Afghanistan?

Yes, a small number of specialized adventure travel companies continue to operate in Afghanistan with extensive security protocols. Companies like Untamed Borders, SAKA Safaris, and Secret Compass run occasional trips with comprehensive risk management. These tours typically cost $3,000-6,000 for 7-14 days excluding international flights.

What should I do if there’s a security incident during my visit?

Follow your pre-established emergency plan and your guide’s instructions without hesitation. Move to your designated safe location, activate your emergency communications, and contact your embassy’s emergency line if available. Minimize visibility and movement until the situation clarifies. This underscores why preparation and local guidance are essential.

How do Afghans generally view foreign visitors in 2025?

Afghan hospitality remains legendary, and many locals welcome respectful visitors. However, foreigner visibility creates complex dynamics. Some view Western visitors with suspicion, others with hope for economic opportunity or humanitarian connections. Reactions vary significantly between urban and rural areas and among different ethnic groups.

References and Additional Resources